Air Quality Under Pressure: Why Eastern EU Nations Lag in Pollution Management

A World Bank-backed report reveals that despite significant emission reductions, Eastern EU countries like Bulgaria, Croatia, Poland, and Romania struggle with weak air quality governance, poor enforcement, and high pollution levels. It urges stronger institutional coordination, legal clarity, and political will to bridge the gap between policy and implementation.

A recent World Bank report, developed in collaboration with the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) and Ecologic Institute, presents a sharp evaluation of air quality governance in the European Union, with a particular focus on four Eastern European countries like Bulgaria, Croatia, Poland, and Romania. While the EU as a whole has made commendable progress in reducing emissions up to 80% for key pollutants between 2005 and 2020, this improvement masks deep-rooted governance challenges in several member states. The report reveals that air pollution continues to pose the single largest environmental health risk across Europe. In 2020, over 300,000 premature deaths were attributed to poor air quality, with PM2.5 levels in some Eastern European cities exceeding World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines by as much as five times.

The Roots of Pollution: Heating, Transport, and Agriculture

The report identifies four main pollution sources in the target countries: domestic heating using solid fuels, transport emissions, agricultural activities, and energy production. These emissions often stem from small-scale, dispersed sources—households, small farms, and decentralized energy producers making regulatory control highly challenging. Although all four countries have transposed EU air quality directives into national law, the actual implementation remains inconsistent. Municipal air quality plans frequently lack actionable measures or binding goals, and national strategies are often outdated or poorly enforced. This disconnect between legislation and practical execution has real consequences for public health, as citizens continue to be exposed to unsafe levels of air pollution in urban and rural areas alike.

A Fractured Institutional Landscape

Central to the report is an evaluation framework built around five pillars of good governance: a sound legal and regulatory foundation, high-level political commitment, integrated multi-level planning, cross-sectoral coordination, and mechanisms for accountability and transparency. While the countries in question have formal legislation in place, the reality of air quality management is frequently hampered by fragmented institutional responsibilities. In both Croatia and Bulgaria, overlapping mandates between local and regional authorities lead to confusion and inefficiency. Romania lacks an up-to-date national air quality program, and all four countries fall short in ensuring that air quality monitoring systems meet EU requirements for coverage, accuracy, and public access to data. The opacity in public communication and limited opportunities for citizen participation further weaken the accountability loop.

Enforcement is another critical weakness. Poland, for example, was taken to the European Court of Justice for ongoing breaches of PM10 standards, and Romania faced similar action for its failure to control industrial pollution. These legal challenges highlight a broader trend of weak regulatory follow-through. Environmental agencies often lack the authority or resources to monitor compliance effectively or to impose penalties when violations occur. Without meaningful consequences, even the best-drafted policies risk becoming symbolic gestures.

Missing the Mark on Economic Incentives

Despite some progress, economic instruments that could accelerate the transition to cleaner practices remain underutilized. Fossil fuel subsidies are still prevalent and substantial in Bulgaria, for instance, they amount to nearly 1% of GDP. These subsidies distort markets by making polluting fuels artificially cheap, undermining cleaner alternatives. At the same time, pricing mechanisms such as pollution taxes or emissions trading schemes are either narrow in scope or not in place at all. This underpricing of pollution removes a critical lever for changing behavior among consumers and industries. The report argues that without robust economic signals, technical measures alone will not suffice to shift societies toward cleaner air.

Lessons from the North: Models Worth Emulating

In stark contrast, countries like Germany, Sweden, and Estonia offer valuable lessons in effective air quality governance. These nations have successfully integrated air quality policy with broader climate and public health agendas. Their institutional structures are well-coordinated, both horizontally across sectors and vertically across government levels. These countries invest in strong monitoring systems, enforce compliance rigorously, and make data accessible to the public. Estonia and Sweden, in particular, have aligned air and climate objectives, allowing them to address pollution through cohesive and mutually reinforcing strategies. These high-performing systems demonstrate that strong governance, clear mandates, and public engagement can produce tangible improvements in air quality.

The Path Forward: From Policy to Action

The World Bank report offers clear and targeted recommendations for Bulgaria, Croatia, Poland, and Romania. These include the need for legal harmonization across levels of government, enhanced enforcement powers for environmental agencies, and improved coordination between ministries, municipalities, and regional bodies. It also calls for phasing out fossil fuel subsidies and investing in low-emission alternatives, alongside expanding pollution pricing mechanisms. Increasing transparency and citizen involvement are vital to strengthening public pressure and government accountability. However, the report is unequivocal in its final message: technical fixes and regulatory reforms will fall short without strong political will. Governments must prioritize air quality not as a siloed environmental issue but as a central pillar of public health, climate resilience, and sustainable development. For these Eastern European countries, narrowing the implementation gap is not merely a matter of compliance with EU standards, it is a crucial investment in the future well-being of their people and their economies.